By Peter Trull

Monomoy National Wildlife Refuge is comprised of two barrier islands extending southward from Morris Island, Chatham, Massachusetts. One section of the east and south-facing perimeter of Morris Island also comprises a part of the refuge, which totals approximately 2750 acres. The Monomoy Islands today consist of North Monomoy Island, approximately two miles in length from north to south, and less than a mile wide at mean high tide, and South Monomoy Island, approximately 5.5 miles long, north to south and 1.25 mile wide at the widest point. This widest point being at the south end from Powder Hole, on the southwest corner, east through the station ponds to the seaward shore. The seaward (east) shore of the Monomoy Islands borders the Atlantic Ocean and consists of open sandy beach deposited by the littoral drift of deposits from the north. This open beach extends for most of the entire length of North Island and virtually the entire length of the south island, south to Monomoy Point. The east facing shore of North Monomoy shows intermittent exposed peat banks created over the last several decades as the shore was eroded and the island showed a slight migration westward. The west facing shore of both islands border Nantucket Sound. North Monomoy's West Side consists of salt marsh at mean high tide, extending into expansive tidal flats to the west at mean low tide. The west facing shore of South Monomoy, except for a small area of salt marsh in the Hospital Pond area of the northwest corner, consists of a narrow beach and dune scarp for the entire length of the island to the Powder Hole, at the south end, where the west and northwest facing beach becomes flat and open.

Monomoy National Wildlife Refuge came into being on June 1, 1944 and was at that time, southward-extending barriers spit, attached to and part of Morris Island. By October 23, 1970, when the U. S. Congress designated the refuge as wilderness, the spit had become an island, separated from Morris Island during an April 1958 storm. During the infamous "Blizzard of '78", February 6 and 7, 1978, Monomoy Island was breached approximately two miles below the north end, creating Monomoy North and South Islands that exist today.

Historically, the Chatham environs was used as a hunting and foraging area by native peoples over the last several thousand years. Samuel de Champlain explored and mapped the region, coming ashore near what is now Stage Harbor, Chatham, in 1606. The Mayflower in 1620, after becoming unsettled with the white water, heavy surf, and shoals off Monomoy Point and the Nantucket Shoals, reversed course and sailed north to the relative calm inside Race Point and the protection of Provincetown Harbor. William Bradford writes;

"After long beating at sea they fell with that land which is called Cape Cod; the which being made and certainly known to be it, they were not a little joyful. After some deliberation had amongst themselves and with the master of the ship, they tacked about and resolved to stand for the southward (the wind and weather being fair) to find someplace about Hudson's River for their habitation. But after they had sailed that course for half the day, they fell amongst dangerous shoals and roaring breakers, and they were so far entangled therewith, as they conceived themselves in great danger; and the wind shrinking upon them withal they resolved to bear up again for the cape".

Bradford describes the Monomoy region;

" A word or two by way of this cape; it was thus first named (Cape Cod) by Captain Gosnold and his company Ano: 1602, and after by Captain Smith was called Cape James; but it retains the former name amongst seamen. Also that point which first showed those dangerous shoals unto them, they called Point Care, and Tucker's Terror; but the Dutch and French to this day call it Mallabarre, by reason of those perilous shoals and the losses they have suffered there"

In 1711, a tavern was established at "Wreck Cove" near what is now inward point (the northwest corner south Monomoy Island). The tavern provided shelter for travelers and seamen when conditions drove them to the cove's safety. In 1729, an emigrant ship from Ireland, George and Ann, having spent more than 120 days in crossing and losing 101 passengers en route, was assisted to shore. Emergency care at the Wreck Cove Tavern provided help for the people, until they could eventually continue on to Ulster County in New York (Massachusetts Audubon Society, 1972). In 1823, Monomoy Light was commissioned and went into use in 1828. The present lighthouse, keeper’s house and dwellings date back to 1849. Between 1835 and 1860, a small fishing community called Whitewash Village thrived in the area of the lighthouse at south Monomoy near Powder Hole. A few cottages, fishing shacks, storage and packing sheds, a store, a lodging house and a school house were all part of this village until about 1860, when the harbor shoaled in, restricting cargo and fishing vessels, whereupon the inhabitants slowly dispersed back north to Harwich and Chatham. However, between 1860 and 1905, Monomoy retained its distinction as a prime location for shooting shorebirds by the thousands. A. C. Bent (1927) reports of "glorious' days of "Bay-bird shooting" when blinds were spread all along the inner marshes and flats of Monomoy. Griscom (1955) reports on the rapid decline of the Eastern (Short-billed) Dowicher: "On Monomoy in 1904 only 45 were shot by all gunners combined."

Until 1944, the U. S. Armed Forces used Monomoy as a gunning range. In 1964, The Massachusetts Audubon Society purchased the plot around the lighthouse as a banding station and research facility, returning it to the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 1977. In 1989, Monomoy Light, decommissioned in 1923, and the keepers house were completely restored by the U.S.F.W.S., and in a cooperative agreement between that agency and the Cape Cod Museum of Natural History, the complex is presently used for education and natural history programs.

Geologically, The formation of Cape Cod began at the end of the last ice age, about 20 - 25 thousand years before present (BP). The Laurentide ice shield advanced, in three distinct lobes, as far south as what is today the line of islands extending westward from Nantucket, including Martha's Vineyard, Block Island and Long Island. The low areas of this moraine (the ridge formed of drift deposited along the front or at the sides of a glacial lobe) eventually filled in as sea level rose forming these islands (Oldale, 1992). Cape Cod Bay is the depression formed by the Cape Cod Bay Lobe as the ice gouged the glacial till and pushed it into a pile (moraine) eventually forming the body of Cape Cod as we know it today.

The Outer Cape was formed during the same period by an ice shield advancing from the northeast called the South Channel Lobe. The third lobe, the Buzzard's Bay Lobe, advanced from the north and northwest to form the Plymouth and upper cape shores and lands forms. Giese (1988) gives an excellent general history of the cape's shoreline development as the Laurentide Ice Shield retreated northward and away from cape cod between 15,000 and 6,500 years BP. "Fifteen thousand years ago, 'present day’ Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket and George's Bank were all part of a single land form which extended some 320 km (190mi.) east of the present eastern limit of the land. By 10,000 years ago, George's Bank was reduced to an island about 80 km (48mi.) long, and by 6,500 years ago, that island was disappearing. Even at that time, however, Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket were joined still and the ever-shrinking land mass which they formed included much of the 'present day’ Nantucket shoals". E.Uchupi el al. (1996) accedes, "An age of 6000 years for Provincetown Hook and other coastal constructional features in the lower cape is not unreasonable". Continuing, "The Provincetown Hook and the barrier islands at the elbow of Cape Cod (Monomoy) were constructed from sediments derived from the sea cliffs (Wellfleet and Eastham) and near shore bottom and transported to their present depocenters by north- and south-flowing littoral drift during the last 6000 year". However, it was prior to this era 6,000 yr. BP that the ancestral barrier spits and islands of the southeastern outer cape began to evolve (G. Giese pers. comm). Giese (1988) describes this area from Nauset Inlet, Orleans, with Coast Guard Beach, Eastham to the north and south (Nauset and South Beach) to Monomoy North and South Islands, as the "Nauset Beach-Monomoy barrier system"

This system of southward extending barrier spits described by Oldale (1992) as long, narrow, sandy point(s) of land constructed by long shore drift. And by Leatherman (1988) as coastal barriers that are attached at one end to a source of sediment - mainland or large island - and extend into open water, comprise an outer beach system approximately 37 km (22 mi.) from north to south. Giese (1988) has presented a 200-year cyclical pattern of change to this dynamic system. This outer beach barrier system is constantly subjected to the direct assault of the sea, while the flora and fauna have evolved in a variety of ways to deal with this often-harsh environment. In fact, the herbaceous beach plants aid in the stability of the dune and beach environment by trapping wind blown sand, thereby initiating dune growth.

The flora of the Monomoy islands has been well described (Lortie et al 1991). The primary species of dune and open beach vegetation over the entire nauset-monomoy system is Ammophila breviligulata, beach grass. The dunes of Coast Guard Beach Eastham, Nauset Beach (Orleans to Chatham), South Beach Chatham and North Monomoy and South Monomoy Islands Chatham, retain Ammophila as the dominant plant species. We find several species of intermittent woody plants through out the dune habitats. The freshwater wetland habitats, found at the southern third of South Monomoy Island including Big Station Pond (27 acres) and Little Station Pond (11 acres), several small natural ponds and a few man made ponds, comprising a total area of approximately 140 acres, support Common and Narrow-leafed Cat-tail Typha latifolia and T. augustafolia, Common Reed Phragmites communis and other emergent and edge plants.

While plant communities play a significant role in the stability and growth of the nauset-monomoy system, they also provide food, shelter and nesting sites for a diversity of avian species. Considered to be one of the premier birdwatching spots in the eastern United States, the Monomoy National Wildlife Refuge and adjacent environs comprise a system of coastal habitats that attract migratory shorebirds, waterfowl, herons, songbirds and colonial seabirds. A constant increase in the number of beach nesting birds and waterfowl since 1961(when herring gulls first nested) is impressive, and the outer beach system, most notably the relationship of Monomoy and South Beach, separated by a narrow channel, clearly shows the ecological connectedness of the outer beach barrier system from Eastham to Chatham. Relating to migrant shorebirds, July - September, most on their way from the high arctic to South America, thousands feed at low tide on Monomoy's tidal flats, then fly to South Beach to roost at high tide. An essential use of two parts of an integral system. Within the realms of nesting activity, consider the Piping Plover. On Monomoy N.W.R. in 1996, 20 prs. nested. Just across the channel on s. beach, 32 prs nested, and along the 22 miles of the nauset-monomoy system in 1996, 97 pairs of piping plovers nested . While 5% of the state's 460 pair nested on Monomoy N. W. R., 21% of the Massachusetts piping plover population nested within the Nauset-Monomoy system in 1996. It is interesting to note that the 20 pairs (M.D.F.&W.) of piping plovers that nested within the Monomoy N.W.R. boundaries in 1996 surpasses the 15 nesting pairs recorded by Ludlow Griscom, (Field Ornithologist, Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology) in 1955, prior to any nesting gulls. Several pairs of plovers nested at Powder Hole, at the south end of the island, adjacent to nesting gulls, away from the gull control area. Geologically and ecologically, Monomoy National Wildlife Refuge is part of a larger ecosystem of comparable plants, animals and habitats in which biodiversity should be measured and assessed throughout the entire system, both historically and with future considerations.

The history of herring gulls and great black-backed gulls nesting on Monomoy dates back to 1961 when a single pair of herring gulls nested on the island. Monomoy had broken away from the mainland three years earlier. Great black-backed gulls first nested in 1965 when 75 pairs were recorded.

By 1970, herring gulls had increased on Monomoy to 6,000 pairs, falling from 8,000 pairs in 1969, but increasing to a high of 15,300 recorded pairs in 1980. Although the USFWS has published nesting gull numbers for years prior to 1980, the 1980 census is the first reliable, systematic census of nesting Monomoy gulls. Great black-backed gulls were less dramatic in their rate of increase, but like the Herring Gull, their numbers climbed steadily with 175 pr. in 1972, 3,900 pr. in 1981 and a high of 5,000 in 1984. Both species nest in the primary and secondary dune areas of north and South Monomoy and have shown a marked decline in their numbers over the last decade. The requirement for Cape towns to cap their landfills and transport garbage off-cape to be incinerated, as well as a marked decline in the George's Bank Fishery are generally accepted reasoning for the decline of both species nesting on Monomoy, although no data is available to substantiate the connection. Schneider and Heinemann (1996) show a rapid decline in offshore populations of herring and great black-backed gulls and other ship-following birds after 1978. The Fish Conservation and Management Act of 1976 restricted foreign fishing within 200 miles of the U.S. coast, causing a reduction in the rate of by-catch or discard. Although the great black-backed gull has declined at a lower rate than the herring gull on Monomoy, 8,180 pr. nesting in 1990 declined to 7,350 pr. in 1995. While avian diversity has increased significantly on the refuge since 1960, gull numbers have begun a steady decline. Noteworthy, and significant to avian diversity on the Monomoy wilderness is the fact that the breeding colony of great black-backed gulls is presently the largest nesting colony of that species in the world, and is declining in numbers.

The Black-crowned Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax nests on South Monomoy Island. Numbers of breeding pairs have declined substantially in Massachusetts since the turn of the century due largely to disturbance, shooting and more recently the use of pesticides, most notably DDT in the 1950's and 60's (Viet, Petersen 1993). Eighty pairs were censused nesting on S. Monomoy Island in 1980. Nesting pairs have fluctuated yet increased on the refuge until 1990 when 250 pairs nested. In 1994, 201 pairs were recorded. Common tern and endangered roseate tern breeding pairs began a steady decline in correlation to the arrival of nesting black-crowned night herons. In 1980, 400 pr. of roseate terns nested on Monomoy, 1981, only 35 pr. nested. Nesting common terns began a steady decline in 1981, dropping from 3,400 nesting pr. on the refuge in 1980, to 1,995 pr. in 1981. This decline continued, with some fluctuation, to a low of 99 pr. in 1993. Regarding the precipitous drop in nesting common terns between 1980 and 1981, Blodgett (1981) states, "This decline" (a 23% drop in nesting common terns statewide from 1980) "is believed to be principally attributable to the breakup of the Monomoy colony, exacerbated by the virtual absence of vacant habitat elsewhere in the Commonwealth. The Monomoy colony sustained continued habitat loss due mainly to erosion of the island itself and unrelenting pressure from the adjacent herring and great black-backed gull colony." This is not necessarily true, More likely, it was unrelenting pressure from predation by Black-crowned Night Herons and Great-horned Owls (Trull, 1980) with no production by 1,995 pr. of Common Terns on the refuge in 1991 due to continual predation of tern chicks and eggs each night by black-crowned night herons (Trull 1981).

Great-horned owls, which feed on common and roseate terns, chicks and adults (Nisbet 1978), also cause a behavioral phenomenon called "night desertion" (Marshall 1942). Adult terns leave the nesting colony each night, returning at dawn. This absence of adults from the colony leaves chicks and eggs vulnerable to nocturnal predation and exposure to the elements. Great- horned owl has nested on South Monomoy Island in recent years. By special permit from Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wildlife and U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Trull (employed as a warden by the Massachusetts Audubon Society) shot marauding herons in the tern-nesting colony at night. In 1981, on 12 nocturnal visits to the tern colony on north Monomoy between June 4, and July 11, Trull recorded 35 occurrence's of black-crowned night herons flying over, through, or feeding in the tern nesting colony. Black-crowned night heron tracks and evidence of predation have been observed (by Trull) on visits to the tern-testing colony on north Monomoy is. between 1987 and 1992. This species is the primary reason for little or no reproductive success by common terns (and probably roseate terns, which have been absent from the islands since 1990) on Monomoy N.W.R. The area of South Monomoy Island where the gull poisoning was carried out in 1996 and where gulls were removed to create open habitat for the endangered roseate tern and other species in 1997 has within its boundaries a significant nesting colony of black-crowned night herons. Herring and great black-backed gulls were poisoned or otherwise "removed" from an established colony in designated federal wilderness, to attract a federally endangered species to nest, adjacent to and among a nesting colony of its historically documented principal predator. The richness and avian diversity of the Monomoy National Wildlife Refuge is well known among ornithologists and birdwatchers alike. Of the 453 species of birds recorded in Massachusetts, more than 70 % (~305) of these have occurred on the refuge.

Collectively called shorebirds, sandpipers and plovers feed during spring and fall migration on the tidal flats of North and South Monomoy, as well as along the pond edges and mud flats. Forty-seven species of shorebirds have been recorded on the refuge, more than any other location in the northeast. Several species nest here, including the willet and american oystercatcher, both have increased as nesting species on the refuge in the last two decades. Griscom reported that neither species nested in Massachusetts in 1955 but that both had nested here during the mid to late 1800's. Both species now nest on Monomoy, though neither has been systematically censused in recent years. More recently the piping plover has increased as a nesting species (MDF&W) while the spotted sandpiper appears to be declining, but with no reliable census data available. The only nesting record of least sandpiper in the lower 48 states occurred on Monomoy in 1979. Wilson's phalarope, considered a rare breeder in Massachusetts (Veit, Petersen 1993), has been recorded nesting in two locations in Massachusetts, Monomoy NWR, where it was confirmed nesting in 1980, and Plum Island.

The hudsonian godwit, which typically migrates non-stop in fall from Hudson's Bay to Argentina, occurs on Monomoy regularly. The whimbrel, during late July and early August, roosts each evening on North Monomoy, flying in from various locations at dusk, sometimes numbering up to 600 individuals (Nikula pers. com.) This roosting phenomenon is unique to Monomoy and occurs no where else in the northeast. Shorebirds from all over the world have been confirmed on Monomoy N.W.R.

Griscom and Snyder (1955) report no nesting records for gadwall, american wigeon, pintail, northern shoveller, mallard, or black duck in Massachusetts. Holt and Lortie (1984) found these species breeding on Monomoy N.W.R. in 1983. Monomoy now has the largest population

of breeding waterfowl in the state, more than Great Meadows N.W.R. and Parker River N.W.R., both of which are managed as waterfowl breeding areas and have no nesting gulls. Veit and Petersen (1993) report wintering flocks of common eider off Monomoy at 500,000 birds remaining fairly constant since 1960, with 300,000 to 500,000 seen from land east of Nantucket in 1983. Other wintering species of waterfowl reported off Monomoy (from Veit and Petersen 1993) include white-winged scoter, 9000+; 1973, surf scoter 10,000; 1960. Around the Nantucket shoals, south of Monomoy Point, red-breasted mergansers were estimated numbering 10,000; November, 1981, also, old squaw, 81,500; January 1983.

Black-crowned night herons and snowy egrets began nesting on Monomoy N.W.R. in 1980 and 1981 respectively. Both species have increased since then and maintain sizeable breeding colonies, with black-crowned night herons nesting on north Monomoy for the first time ever in 1996. Also a first in 1996 was a breeding record for great egret on South Monomoy. In 1986, glossy ibis was recorded nesting in the heron colony on south Monomoy for the first time and has been a sporadic nester since. Reddish egret, which breeds along the Gulf of Mexico occurred for the first time in Massachusetts, on Monomoy, in 1953, and has been recorded in Massachusetts only twice since.

Noteworthy is the only nesting record of common black-headed gull in the United States (breeds in Iceland and Eurasia) on North Monomoy in1984. Laughing gulls have nested on Monomoy, with a high count of 1,000 pairs in 1981 (Nisbet, pers. com.) but have declined steadily with none nesting since 1993. However, at New Island, Eastham, 956 pairs nested in 1990, suggesting a population shift to a different colony within the Nauset- Monomoy system. While four species of terns (common, roseate, arctic and least) and three species of gulls (herring, great black-backed and laughing) have been recorded nesting on Monomoy NWR, thirteen species of terns and eleven species of gulls, with breeding ranges from Alaska to Europe, have been recorded at various times of the year. Black skimmers, at the northern extreme of their breeding range, have nested on Monomoy in 1966, 1968-1971, 1976, 1984-1987, 1990 and 1996, and are evident on an annual basis.

Birds of prey are well represented on Monomoy NWR. Short-eared owl is listed as "endangered" in Massachusetts. In 1986, 5 pr. nested on Monomoy NWR, representing 25% of the state's breeding population. The U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service shot three in 1982, suspected of limiting the nesting success of terns on the refuge. Short-eared owls have declined and no longer nest on the refuge. Great-horned owl has nested on South Monomoy in recent years and is a regular nester on Morris Island. Nisbet (1975) has described in detail the methodology and the effects of great-horned owls at tern nesting colonies. Snowy owl often winters on the refuge, while the northern harrier or marsh hawk is a regular nester. During fall migration, the federally endangered peregrine falcon takes advantage of waterfowl and shorebird diversity, feeding on a variety of birds on the refuge. In all, four species of falcon, 5 species of hawks, osprey and bald eagle have occurred on the refuge.

Thickets, fresh and saltwater marshes, ponds, bogs, pine stands, sandy dunes, dwellings, all are habitats for songbirds. Whether migrants or nesters, songbirds can be found over a large part of both islands. Twenty-seven species of songbirds have been recorded as nesters on the refuge (Holt, Lortie, 1984) while migratory warblers, orioles, sparrows, woodpeckers and flycatchers are recorded each spring and fall. The single record for brown-chested martin in North America occurred near the Monomoy lighthouse in 1983.

In summary, approximately 305 species of birds have been recorded on the Monomoy NWR, while in Massachusetts, between 450 and 455 species of birds have been recorded.

Holt (1983) recorded 11 species of mammals on Monomoy NWR. Masked shrew, short-tailed shrew, white-footed mouse, meadow jumping mouse, meadow vole, muskrat, long-tailed weasel, big brown bat, harbor seal, gray seal and white-tailed deer.

Red bat and hoary bat have been observed as migrants by the author on North and South Monomoy respectively. Red fox were removed from the island after it was separated from the mainland. Eastern coyote eastern coyote Canis latrans has been reported on North Monomoy (Prescott pers. comm) in recent years. In 1919 and 2000, The U.S. F.& W. S shot eastern coyote on the refuge to deter predation on nesting bird species. Long-tailed weasel and raccoon were both removed in 1983 and 1986 respectively, and Between 1960 and 1986 the deer population ranged between 15 and 30 individuals. White-tailed deer have been observed swimming between Morris Island and North Monomoy. Harbor seals and gray seals (listed as a species of special concern in Massachusetts) use haul out sites on both islands, as well as South Beach, Chatham. Monomoy NWR became a pupping site for gray seals in 1990 and pups have been born in subsequent years although monitoring is difficult. On April 24, 1995, 1403 gray seals and 608 harbor seals were recorded on Monomoy (V. Rough pers. comm.). A harbor seal pup was found on the refuge in 1986 (Humphry pers. com.) Gray seals are now found year round on the refuge.

Fowler's toad and common garter snake are the confirmed herps on North and South Monomoy. Decay's snake has been reported but not confirmed on South Monomoy (Hanson pers. com.) and it is likely that black racer, spring peeper and wood frog occur on the Morris Island section of the refuge. A full inventory of herps is recommended, especially on South Monomoy Island.

A myriad of marine invertebrates is found in the waters adjacent to Monomoy NWR. Marine worms, amphipods and a tiny clam called Gemma gemma provide food for migratory and nesting shorebirds. Commercially, fishermen take quahogs, soft-shelled clams, sea clams and blue mussels. Gulls, shorebirds and waterfowl feed upon these same shellfish. Horseshoe crabs, which spawn in spring in the shallows around Monomoy, lay millions of eggs, which also provide an important food source for northward migrating shorebirds. Striped bass, blue fish and flounder are taken both for sport and commercially, and feed on extensive schools of sand eels, while in Big Station Pond on South Monomoy, largemouth bass can be found in company with and feeding on fresh water killifish. Clearly, further investigation is necessary to determine the diversity of fish and aquatic life in the South Monomoy ponds.

Bibliography

Bent, A. C. 1927. Life histories of North American shorebirds. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. no. 142. Washington D.C.

Blodgett , 1981. Tern census and inventory data. Massachusetts Division of Fisheries, Wildlife and Recreational Vehicles. Unpublished memorandum.

Giese, G. S. 1988. Cyclical behavior of the tidal inlet at Nauset Beach, Chatham, Massachusetts. Lecture Notes on Coastal and Estuarine Studies, 29: 269-83.

Griscom, L. and Snyder, D. E. 1955. Birds of Massachusetts. Peabody Museum of Salem, Inc.

Holt, D. 1983.

Holt, D. W. and Lortie, 1984. An Inventory of the breeding birds of Monomoy National Wildlife Refuge, Chatham, Massachusetts. Bird Observer of Eastern Massachusetts, 12 (1) 53-57.

Leatherman, S. P. 1988. Barrier Island Handbook. Coastal Publication Series, Laboratory for Coastal Research, The University of Maryland, College Park MD.

Lortie, J. P., Sorrie, B. A. and Holt D. W., 1991. Flora of the Monomoy Islands Chatham Massachusetts. RHODORA. Vol. 93. 876:361-389

Marshall , N. 1942. Night desertion by nesting Common Terns. Wilson Bull. 51:25-31.

Massachusetts Audubon Society. 1972. Monomoy Wilderness.

Nisbet, I.C.T. 1975. Selective effects of predation in a tern colony. Condor 77:221-226

Oledale, R. N. 1992. Cape Cod and the Islands The Geologic Story. Parnassus Imprints, East Orleans, Massachusetts.

Schneider, D. C. and Heinemann, D. W. 1996. The state of marine bird populations from Cape Hatteras to the Gulf of Maine. The Northeast Shelf Ecosystem: Assessment, Sustainability, and Management (K. Sherman, N. A. Jaworski and T. J Smayda, eds.) Blackwell Science, Cambridge MA.

Trull, P. 1980. Report of the Tern Warden. Massachusetts Audubon Society unpublished report.

Trull, P. 1981. Report of the Tern Warden. Massachusetts Audubon Society unpublished report.

Uchupi, et al. 1996. The Late Quaternary Construction of Cape Cod, Massachusetts A Reconsideration of the W. M. Davis Model. The Geological Society of America. Special Paper 309.

Veit, R.R. and W. R.Petersen. 1993. Birds of Massachusetts. Massachusetts Audubon Society, Lincoln, MA. 514 pp.